lowfertility

Lowfertility, often written as "low fertility," is a demographic condition in which a population's fertility level is persistently below replacement level, typically measured by the total fertility rate (TFR). Replacement level is the TFR needed for a population to maintain its size over time, commonly about 2.1 births per woman in countries with moderate mortality. When TFR stays below this level, populations tend to age and may decline in size unless offset by immigration or other factors.

Causes are multifaceted. They include later ages at first birth, smaller desired family sizes, higher educational attainment and workforce participation among women, economic insecurity and housing costs, access to effective contraception, urbanization, and evolving social norms regarding family life and career.

Consequences can be broad. An aging population increases old-age dependency ratios and can place greater pressure on pension systems, healthcare, and eldercare. Labor markets, housing demand, and educational needs may shift as the demographic structure changes. The magnitude of effects depends on country-specific factors such as immigration, productivity, and policy responses.

Policy responses to low fertility vary and are debated. Measures commonly aim to reduce the costs of childrearing and improve work–family balance, including parental leave, affordable childcare, child allowances or subsidies, housing support, and policies promoting flexible employment. Some countries also rely on immigration to counterbalance aging trends. The effectiveness of policies differs across contexts and over time.