liberalism

Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy centered on liberty, equality before the law, and the protection of individual rights. It champions civil liberties, the rule of law, and democratic accountability, with government power limited by constitutional checks. Core ideas include freedom of expression and association, due process, property rights, and the view that individuals should be free to pursue their own paths so long as they do not infringe others’ rights.

Across its history, liberalism has varied in emphasis. Classical liberalism stresses limited government, free markets, and minimal state intervention; modern or social liberalism accepts a more active state to secure equal opportunity, regulate markets, and provide social welfare. The tradition also supports pluralism, tolerance of diverse beliefs, and peaceful political change.

Historically, liberalism arose in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries in opposition to absolutist rule and justified constitutional government. Thinkers such as John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and later J.S. Mill shaped its principles; in the 20th century theorists like John Rawls refined ideas about justice and rights.

In practice, liberalism underpins many constitutional democracies and human rights regimes. Regional variants exist: in the Anglophone world, liberalism often aligns with civil liberties within a market economy; in parts of Europe, liberal parties may emphasize market competition alongside social measures. Critics contend liberalism can neglect communal bonds or exacerbate inequality, while opponents argue it underplays collective welfare or too readily trusts market outcomes.