holons

Holons are entities that are simultaneously wholes and parts of a larger system. The term was coined by Arthur Koestler in 1967 to describe units that can function autonomously while remaining integrated within higher‑order structures. In Koestler's view, systems are organized as holarchies—nested, self‑regulating structures where each holon contains smaller holons and is itself a component of a larger holon.

A defining feature of holons is their dual status as both independent wholes and integral parts of a greater whole. They exhibit autonomy and interdependence, contributing to the stability and function of the larger system while maintaining their own internal organization. Emergent properties often arise from interactions within a holon and from the relationships between holons at different levels. Holons participate in feedback processes and can exhibit self‑organization, adapting to changing conditions without losing overall coherence.

Holons appear across diverse domains. In biology, cells are holons within tissues, which are holons within organs and organisms within ecosystems. In organizational contexts, teams or departments can be holons within a company, and a company can be a holon within an industry network. In technology and knowledge systems, holonic approaches underpin manufacturing architectures, distributed software agents, and collaborative platforms that treat units as semi‑autonomous yet coordinated actors.

Terminology and usage vary. Some writers use holon as a generic term for any semi‑autonomous unit, while others reserve holarchy for the complete nested arrangement. Critics note that the concept can be vague or overlap with other notions of levels or modules, complicating precise analysis.

See also: general systems theory, hierarchy, emergence, cybernetics.