holism

Holism is a philosophical and methodological approach that emphasizes the study of wholes and systems rather than merely the sum of their parts. Proponents argue that certain properties, structures, and behaviors only appear when components interact within a larger context, and that these emergent features cannot be fully explained by reduction to individual elements. The term was popularized by Jan Smuts in 1926 in his discussion of evolution and metaphysics; it has since influenced biology, ecology, psychology, sociology, philosophy, and systems theory. In systems theory and cybernetics, thinkers such as Ludwig von Bertalanffy and Norbert Wiener developed frameworks for analyzing feedback, control, and interdependence across levels of organization.

Holism contrasts with reductionism, which seeks explanations by dissecting systems into parts. Holistic analysis stresses interconnectedness, context, and the possibility of properties that only exist at higher levels of organization. Examples include viewing an organism as an integrated whole, analyzing ecosystems through interactions among species and their environment, and applying holistic or integrative approaches in health care that consider physical, mental, social, and environmental factors.

Critics argue that holism can be vague or difficult to test, and that neglecting component-level mechanisms can hamper explanatory power. Some scholars advocate methodological pluralism, using both holistic and reductionist methods to understand complex phenomena. In the social sciences, debates concern whether social facts can be explained entirely by individuals or require group-level principles and structures.

Related concepts include emergent properties, gestalt psychology, and general systems theory. Holism continues to influence research and practice in fields such as medicine, ecology, and organizational design.