euphoria

Euphoria is a subjective state of intense well-being, happiness, or elation that exceeds ordinary mood. It can arise from positive experiences, social bonding, exercise, or achievement, and can also occur as a pharmacological or pathological state. In clinical contexts it is often described as a peak mood with heightened energy and reduced anxiety, though it may accompany various mood and substance-use disorders.

Etymology: from Greek eu- "good" and pherō "to bear."

Neurobiology: Euphoria is linked to the brain's reward circuits, especially the mesolimbic dopamine pathway in the ventral tegmental area and nucleus accumbens. Dopamine signaling correlates with reward anticipation and pleasure. Endogenous opioids, endocannabinoids, and other neurotransmitters modulate intensity, with involvement of the prefrontal cortex and amygdala depending on context.

Pharmacology and clinical aspects: Substances including opioids, stimulants, cannabis, MDMA, and alcohol can induce euphoria, with effects varying by drug and dose. Euphoria can reinforce use and contribute to addiction, tolerance, and withdrawal. Clinically, it may appear in mania or hypomania and is assessed alongside other mood symptoms.

Distinctions and cultural usage: Euphoria differs from ordinary happiness in intensity and duration; it can be benign or a sign of pathology depending on context. The term is also used in popular culture, but scientifically it denotes a specific affective state related to reward processing.