cryothermometry

Cryothermometry is the measurement of temperature in cryogenic conditions, typically involving temperatures from a few kelvin down to the millikelvin range in dilution refrigerators, and extending into higher cryogenic temperatures for specific applications. It underpins studies of superconductivity, low-temperature physics, cryogenic engineering, and space- and quantum-era instrumentation by providing accurate temperature readouts for materials, devices, and processes.

Most cryogenic temperature measurements rely on specialized sensors calibrated for low temperatures. Resistance thermometers (RTDs) such as Cernox and RuO2 are common due to favorable sensitivity and relatively low magnetic-field dependence; silicon diodes and germanium diodes offer alternative performance characteristics. Thermocouples (for example, thermocouple types suitable for cryogenic work) are robust and cover broad ranges but generally sacrifice some accuracy at the lowest temperatures. In addition, Johnson-Nyquist (noise) thermometry and other primary methods exploit fundamental thermodynamic relations to determine temperature without reliance on a calibrated resistance. Diode and resistor sensors require careful electrical grounding, low self-heating, and stable thermal contacts to the measured environment.

Calibration and traceability in cryothermometry typically rely on established temperature scales such as ITS-90 and fixed-point references at well-defined cryogenic temperatures (for example, the boiling points of nitrogen at 77 K and helium at 4.2 K, under specified pressures). Sensor performance is affected by magnetic fields, thermal anchoring, radiation, and contact resistance, all of which must be carefully managed.

Applications span superconducting magnets, cryogenic detectors, quantum computing hardware, and spacecraft instrumentation, making reliable cryogenic thermometry a critical component of experimental design and operation.