computerchips

Computer chips, or integrated circuits, are small pieces of semiconductor material, usually silicon, that contain a network of electronic components such as transistors, capacitors, and interconnections. Chips execute, store, or relay information, enabling digital logic, memory, and signal processing in electronic devices. They are fabricated through photolithography and other processing steps that define microscopic circuit patterns and electrical connections, then packaged for mounting on boards.

Common types include CPUs (central processing units), GPUs (graphics processing units), memory chips (RAM, ROM, and flash), and specialized devices such as application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), system-on-a-chip devices (SoCs), and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). Modern chips often integrate billions of transistors and may combine computation, memory, and input/output interfaces on a single package.

Chips are produced in semiconductor fabrication facilities called fabs. The manufacturing process uses multiple photolithography steps to etch patterns into layers of silicon, silicon dioxide, and metals, with ion implantation, chemical vapor deposition, and etching to form transistors and interconnects. Following wafer fabrication, chips are tested, diced, packaged, and tested again before being sold.

The integrated circuit was developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce, enabling the modern computer era. Since then, scaling and lithography advances have increased density and performance, though the pace has slowed. Leading companies include TSMC, Samsung, Intel, GlobalFoundries, and UMC.

Chips power nearly all modern electronics, from mobile devices to servers and vehicles. They enable faster computation and new workloads such as artificial intelligence accelerators, but face challenges including supply chain volatility, rising fabrication costs, heat dissipation, and environmental concerns related to manufacturing and e-waste.