caliphs

A caliph is the ruler of an Islamic caliphate and is regarded as the political and, in Sunni tradition, religious successor to the Prophet Muhammad. The term comes from the Arabic khalifa, meaning “successor” or “steward.”

After Muhammad’s death in 632, the Muslim community elected Abu Bakr as the first caliph, followed by Umar, Uthman, and Ali. This group is known as the Rashidun, or “Rightly Guided,” caliphs. They oversaw rapid expansion and established early governance practices, but succession often involved nomination or consensus among leading community figures rather than strict hereditary rules, a pattern that later gave way to dynastic rule and internal conflicts.

The Umayyad Caliphate (roughly 661–750) established a hereditary monarchy with the capital at Damascus, extending authority across vast territories. The Abbasid Caliphate (about 750–1258) moved the center to Baghdad and emphasized administration, science, and culture, though political power gradually diminished as regional dynasties rose. From the medieval period onward, other polities claimed caliphal authority, notably the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa and Egypt. The Ottoman sultans held the title of Caliph from 1517, serving as the Sunni Muslim spiritual head until the formal abolition of the caliphate in 1924.

In practice, caliphates differed in legitimacy and structure across eras. In Sunni Islam, the caliph is typically a political and religious leader rather than a priest, with legitimacy derived from election, nomination, or hereditary succession in different periods. In contrast, Shia Islam emphasizes the Imamate, viewed as a divinely appointed lineage beginning with Ali and his descendants.