Typestate

Typestate is a programming language concept and type-system discipline in which the type of an object encodes the set of operations that are valid for the object's current state. In a typestate system, objects progress through a finite set of states, and methods may be restricted to be callable only when the object is in a specific state. Transitions between states are modeled as part of the type, so sequences of operations that violate the protocol cannot type-check. This can allow compile-time enforcement of resource usage protocols and object lifecycles, reducing runtime errors such as use-after-close or invalid I/O sequences.

Origins and scope: The idea grew from research into object protocols and resource management, with formal typestate concepts appearing in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. It has influenced language design, libraries, and program verifiers, though there is no single standard syntax or implementation. Typestate is often presented as a pattern or extension rather than a universal feature of statically typed languages.

Implementation and patterns: Typestate can be implemented via dedicated type systems or encoding states with phantom types or generic parameters. A common pattern is to parameterize a type by its current state and have methods consume the value and return a version tagged with the next state. Some languages, notably those with strong ownership models, use similar patterns to enforce safe resource handling. Others rely on external tooling for static analysis or runtime checks.

Usage and considerations: Typical domains include file handles, network connections, and multi-step APIs where certain actions are only valid after prior steps. Benefits include catching protocol violations early and reducing runtime errors; downsides include increased code complexity, potential state-space explosion, and potential mismatch with dynamic behaviors. Typestate concepts can coexist with existing type systems and are often implemented as libraries or language features that resemble, but do not require, full typestate support.