Structures

Structures are arrangements or systems of interconnected parts that form a whole. They can be tangible, such as buildings and bridges, or abstract, such as networks and frameworks. Structures are studied to understand stability, function, and behavior under various conditions.

Physical structures refer to built forms designed to withstand forces and serve human needs. Engineers consider materials, geometry, loads, and environmental factors. Common material groups include concrete, steel, timber, and composite fabrics. Key concerns are strength, stiffness, durability, safety, and constructability. Design often follows codes and standards and is validated through analysis and testing.

Biological structures describe the organization of matter at different scales. Proteins fold into specific three-dimensional shapes that determine activity. Cells assemble organelles into tissues and organs, enabling life processes. Structural biology uses imaging and spectroscopy to reveal macromolecular architecture, enabling insights into function and disease.

Data structures are formal arrangements for organizing information in computing. They determine how data is stored, accessed, and updated. Examples range from primitive arrays and linked lists to trees, graphs, stacks, queues, and hash tables. The choice of structure affects algorithm efficiency and resource use.

Social and organizational structures refer to how entities such as individuals, groups, or institutions are arranged and governed. Hierarchies, networks, roles, and norms influence behavior, decision making, and resilience. Structures can evolve through design, adaptation, or emergence.

Methods and characterization: Structural analysis uses mathematical modeling, simulations, and physical testing. Imaging, microscopy, and spectroscopy in biology reveal architecture. In computing, abstraction and formal specification support rigorous reasoning.