Prejudice

Prejudice is a preconceived, usually unfavorable judgment about people based on their membership in a particular group. It involves attitudes rather than actions and is often not grounded in direct experience or evidence. Prejudice is distinct from stereotypes (the beliefs about attributes of a group) and from discrimination (the unequal treatment of individuals on the basis of group membership). It can be explicit or implicit, and may operate at the individual, interpersonal, and institutional levels.

Common axes of prejudice include race, ethnicity, gender, religion, age, sexual orientation, disability, and nationality, though biases can target almost any group. Implicit prejudice refers to unconscious attitudes that can influence judgments and behavior, even among people who express egalitarian beliefs.

Causes include socialization in families and cultures, exposure to biased media, and cognitive processes that simplify social information. Theories such as social identity theory explain in-group favoritism and out-group hostility, while realistic conflict theory links prejudice to competition for resources. The contact hypothesis suggests that structured, equal-status contact can reduce prejudice, though in practice results vary.

Effects of prejudice are broad, affecting the mental and physical well-being of individuals and shaping social inequality. Consequences include discrimination in education, employment, housing, and criminal justice, as well as microaggressions and social exclusion that perpetuate cycles of disadvantage.

Efforts to reduce prejudice include education that challenges stereotypes, intergroup contact under favorable conditions (equal status, cooperation, institutional support), media representation that broadens characterizations, and policies promoting equity. Debates exist about the effectiveness and durability of interventions, and measurement of prejudice (explicit and implicit) remains complex.