Politeness

Politeness refers to communicative practices that aim to show consideration for others, maintain social harmony, and manage face during interaction. It involves both linguistic choices and nonverbal behavior designed to minimize threats to the interlocutor's desire to be respected (positive face) and to avoid imposing, interrupting, or commanding (negative face).

An influential theoretical account is Brown and Levinson's politeness theory (1987). They describe face-threatening acts and propose strategies grouped along a continuum from on-record directness to off-record, with positive politeness (emphasizing solidarity and approval) and negative politeness (acknowledging autonomy and distance). The choice of strategy depends on the power relation, social distance, and the estimated imposition of the act.

Politeness varies across cultures and languages. High-context or collectivist cultures may rely on indirectness and honorific systems, while low-context, individualist contexts may value straightforward clarity. Linguistic devices such as honorifics, indirect requests, apologies, and expressions of gratitude are common, as are nonverbal cues like tone, gaze, and spacing.

Politeness serves functions including reducing conflict, facilitating cooperation, and maintaining social roles. It is dynamic and context-sensitive, with listeners' perceptions of politeness affected by age, status, gender, setting, and relationship history. Impoliteness and rudeness are studied as the deliberate breach of norms that can serve competitive or expressive goals.

Scholarly discussion includes critiques of Brown and Levinson for cultural bias and simplification of social norms. Alternative frameworks emphasize face needs, interactional strategies, or the role of power and identity. Learners and analysts often use discourse analysis and cross-cultural surveys to study politeness in real talk.