Metallurgy

Metallurgy is the branch of science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements and their compounds. It covers the extraction of metals from ores and their processing into useful products. Metallurgy is often divided into extractive metallurgy, which focuses on obtaining metals from natural resources, and physical metallurgy, which studies the properties, processing, and performance of metals and alloys.

Extractive metallurgy involves ore mining and concentration, followed by smelting or electrochemical reduction to produce a base metal. Beneficiation methods include crushing, grinding, flotation, and magnetic separation. Smelting uses heat and reducing agents to convert ore compounds to metal, while refining removes impurities through methods such as electrowinning, electrorefining, or chemical refining. For some metals, such as aluminum, electrolysis of alumina is employed. Across many systems, alloying elements are added to tailor mechanical and chemical properties.

Physical metallurgy focuses on how microstructure—crystal structure, grain size, precipitates—drives properties like strength, hardness, ductility, and toughness. It relies on alloy design and heat treatment (annealing, quenching, tempering) to control phases and microstructure. Mechanical processing such as rolling, forging, and drawing further modifies properties. Phase diagrams help predict behavior with changes in temperature and composition.

Historically, metallurgy has ancient roots in bronze and iron production. The industrial era brought large-scale steelmaking with processes such as the Bessemer and open-hearth methods, enabling advances in construction and transportation. Modern metallurgy integrates materials science, modeling, and sustainability to develop lighter, stronger metals and to improve recycling and resource efficiency.

Metallurgy underpins sectors including construction, automotive and aerospace, electronics, energy, and consumer goods. Environmental considerations emphasize mining impact, energy use, and metal recycling.