Incas

The Incas, also known as the Inca Empire or Tawantinsuyu (Quechua for "the four regions"), were a dominant pre-Columbian civilization in the Andes. Centered in the city of Cusco, their empire grew from the 13th century to its height in the 15th and early 16th centuries, encompassing large parts of present-day Peru, Ecuador, western Bolivia, northwest Argentina, and portions of Chile and Colombia.

The Sapa Inca ruled as a divine monarch, and the state maintained a centralized administrative structure. The empire was organized into four suyus (quarters) and connected by an extensive road network that facilitated military movement, trade, and communication. Officials oversaw labor mobilization (mit’a), storage and redistribution through qullqas, and record-keeping with quipu rather than a full writing system.

Economy and society: agriculture relied on terracing and irrigation, with staple crops including maize, potatoes, and quinoa. The mit’a labor draft supported public works and state projects, while provincial communities were guided by local rulers known as curacas and by a noble class. Quechua was the common language, and religion centered on sun worship, with state ceremonies and temple complexes such as Coricancha illustrating the fusion of politics and faith.

Architectural and technological achievements include sophisticated dry-stone construction and monumental sites such as Machu Picchu and Sacsayhuamán. The Inca Empire began to unravel after the Spanish arrived, marked by the capture of Atahualpa in 1532 and rapid colonization that culminated in the dissolution of centralized Inca authority in the following years.