preColumbian

Pre-Columbian refers to the period in the Americas before sustained contact with Europeans following Christopher Columbus’s 1492 voyage. The term is used in archaeology, anthropology, and history to distinguish the diverse indigenous cultures that developed independently of European influence.

The geographic scope spans North, Central, and South America and the Caribbean, with distinct regional traditions such as Mesoamerica, the Andean highlands, and various North American cultures. Timeframes vary by region, ranging from the rise of settled agricultural societies thousands of years BCE to the centuries immediately preceding 1492.

Major regions and cultures include Mesoamerica, where civilizations such as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Teotihuacan, and Aztec flourished; the Andean corridor with Caral-Supe, Chavín, Moche, Nazca, Tiwanaku, Wari, and eventually the Inca; and North American cultures such as the Ancestral Puebloans, Mississippian societies, and Hopewell; the Caribbean saw cultures like the Taíno. Pre-Columbian contact with other peoples, including Norse exploration in some areas, is noted in scholarly discussions but remains limited in scope.

Key features of Pre-Columbian societies include complex urban planning, monumental architecture, extensive agricultural systems (such as maize, potatoes, manioc), and in some regions sophisticated writing or record-keeping (notably the Maya) alongside other forms of communication like quipu in the Andes. Trade networks, arts, astronomy, and metallurgy also marked many cultures, though practices and technologies varied widely.

Scholarly usage of the term emphasizes pre-contact conditions and is sometimes debated. Some scholars prefer “pre-contact” or emphasize specific cultures and regions. The era ends with European arrival and the Columbian Exchange, which brought sweeping demographic, ecological, and cultural changes to the Americas.