ICs

An integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic circuit fabricated on a single semiconductor substrate, usually silicon. ICs can contain billions of transistors and other components connected to perform a wide range of functions, from simple logic operations to complete microprocessors, memory devices, and signal processing blocks.

The integrated circuit was developed independently in the late 1950s by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor. Their work replaced many discrete components with a single chip. ICs progressed from small-scale to large-scale, very large-scale, and beyond, enabling increasingly dense integration.

ICs are categorized as digital, analog, or mixed-signal. Digital ICs implement logic, memory, and processors. Analog ICs handle continuous signals, such as amplifiers and filters. Mixed-signal devices combine both. Memory ICs store data in various forms, including SRAM, DRAM, and flash.

Manufacturing relies on silicon wafer fabrication and photolithography to form transistor networks and interconnects. CMOS technology dominates modern ICs because of low power consumption and scalability. After fabrication, dies are packaged to connect pins or integrated into multi-die assemblies.

ICs underpin modern electronics across consumer devices, automotive systems, communications, and industrial equipment. Ongoing trends include system-on-chip designs, three-dimensional packaging, heterogeneous integration, and continued scaling in line with, but increasingly challenging, Moore's law. Challenges include design complexity, heat, reliability, and supply-chain considerations.