Gentransfer

Gentransfer, in biology commonly referred to as horizontal gene transfer, is the movement of genetic material between organisms that are not parent and offspring. This process enables organisms to acquire new genes and traits without reproduction, leading to genomes that are mosaic and can change rapidly in response to environmental pressures. Gentransfer contrasts with vertical inheritance and is especially prominent among microbes, though it has been observed in a range of life forms.

Mechanisms of gentransfer include transformation, where an organism takes up free DNA from the environment; transduction, in which bacteriophages transfer genetic material between cells; and conjugation, which involves direct cell-to-cell transfer of DNA, typically via plasmids. Additional routes include vesicle-mediated transfer, gene transfer agents, integrons, and transposons that move genetic elements within or between genomes. These mechanisms can spread traits such as metabolic capabilities, stress tolerance, and virulence factors, and they play a major role in the rapid dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes among bacteria.

Occurrence and significance vary by lineage and environment. Gentransfer is widespread in bacteria and archaea and has been documented in some eukaryotes. It influences microbial evolution, disrupts straightforward phylogenetic reconstruction, and can enable organisms to adapt to new ecological niches without waiting for slow genetic changes.

History and terminology reflect foundational experiments in genetics. Classical work in the mid-20th century demonstrated transformation, conjugation, and transduction as distinct routes of gene transfer, reshaping understanding of inheritance. Today, gentransfer remains a central concept in genetics, microbiology, and biotechnology, informing studies of evolution, ecology, and the design of engineered organisms.

See also: horizontal gene transfer, transformation, transduction, conjugation, plasmids, transposons.