Conifers

Conifers are cone-bearing seed plants that form the division Pinophyta, a major group within the gymnosperms. They are among the oldest and largest groups of land plants and are typically woody, with leaves that are scale-like or needle-like. Most conifers are evergreen, retaining foliage year-round, though a few genera such as Larix (larches) and Metasequoia glyptostroboides are deciduous.

Diversity and characteristics vary by lineage. The living conifers include families such as Pinaceae (pines, spruces, firs, true cedars), Cupressaceae (cypresses, junipers, redwoods), Araucariaceae (Araucaria, Agathis), Podocarpaceae, and Taxaceae (yews). Conifer leaves are adapted to harsh conditions, often with thick cuticles and stomatal control to reduce water loss, and many species produce resin that helps deter pests and decay. Reproduction occurs in cones: male cones release pollen that is carried by the wind to female cones, where seeds develop and are eventually dispersed by wind or animals.

Distribution and ecology. Conifers are found worldwide, with a strong presence in boreal and temperate regions. They also occur in mountainous tropical regions and in some southern hemisphere temperate zones. Their evergreen habit and long-lived wood make them important ecological components of many forests and valuable resources for humans.

Uses and conservation. Conifers provide timber, pulp, resins, and are widely cultivated as ornamental trees. Some species face threats from logging, disease, invasive pests, and climate change, leading to regional conservation concerns and management efforts.