Citoinnin

Citoinnin (also known as citrinin) is a mycotoxin produced by several fungal species, chiefly Penicillium citrinum and certain Aspergillus species, and occasionally found in contaminated foods. It commonly contaminates cereals and grains such as barley, corn, and rice, as well as coffee, dried fruits, and some red yeast rice products when produced under unsuitable conditions. It is a secondary metabolite synthesized by fungi in warm, humid environments, and is often found with other mycotoxins such as ochratoxin A.

Toxicology and health effects: Citoinnin is primarily nephrotoxic in animals and humans; chronic dietary exposure may lead to kidney damage and functional impairment. Evidence for acute toxicity in humans is limited, but animal studies indicate potential kidney injury; some risk assessments note possible genotoxic or carcinogenic concerns at high exposures, though data are not conclusive. Citoinnin can act synergistically with ochratoxin A, increasing risk at low exposures.

Exposure and regulation: Food monitoring programs measure citoinnin in cereals and derived products. Many national and international authorities have not established a dedicated tolerable daily intake or maximum levels for citoinnin; risk assessments often address combined exposure to multiple mycotoxins. Preventive measures include proper crop harvesting, rapid drying and storage at low moisture, rigorous sorting to remove moldy fractions, and careful selection of fermentation substrates to avoid contaminated materials.

Detection and control: Analytical methods include LC-MS/MS and HPLC with fluorescence or UV detection; rapid immunoassay kits exist for screening.

See also: citrinin; ochratoxin A; Penicillium citrinum.