transmutations

Transmutations refers to the transformation of one element or substance into another. In modern science, the term is most often used for nuclear transmutation, where changes to the atomic nucleus produce a different element or isotope. By contrast, chemical reactions rearrange atoms within compounds and do not alter the identity of the elements involved.

Nuclear transmutation occurs naturally through radioactive decay and cosmic-ray–driven reactions, and it can be induced in laboratories or reactors. Natural transmutation includes the formation of carbon-14 in the atmosphere via interactions with nitrogen-14. Artificial transmutation is achieved by particle accelerators, reactors, or spallation, using processes such as neutron capture and proton or heavy-ion bombardment.

Historically, transmutation was the central aim of alchemy, the belief that base metals could be converted into gold. Modern physics reframed the idea as a real physical process described by nuclear reactions. Early 20th-century work by scientists such as Rutherford and Soddy established that elements can change identity through nuclear transformations.

Applications of transmutation include the production of medical isotopes, generation of materials for research, and radiocarbon dating, which relies on 14C produced by atmospheric transmutation. Safety, regulation, and waste management govern practical work with transmutation, given the radioactivity involved. In culture, the term also appears in fiction and philosophy, but in science it denotes real nuclear changes.