shanyu

Shanyu, also transliterated as chanyu, is the title given to the supreme ruler of the Xiongnu, a major nomadic confederation on the Eurasian steppe. The term appears in Chinese sources as 單于 (shān yú) and is commonly rendered in English as shanyu or chanyu. The title signified the central authority over a loose alliance of tribes rather than a single centralized state in the sense of sedentary kingdoms. The historical Xiongnu operated from the late 3rd century BCE into the early centuries CE, reaching their peak as a powerful steppe empire that repeatedly challenged Han China.

Etymologically, shanyu is a Chinese transcription of a Xiongnu title whose original pronunciation is not known with certainty. In scholarly works, chanyu is the more common transliteration, while shanyu reflects older or regional spellings. The role of the shanyu was both political and military: to lead campaigns, coordinate diplomacy with neighboring states, oversee tribute and exchange arrangements, and command a confederation of allied tribes.

Notable figures associated with the title include Modu Chanyu, who is traditionally viewed as uniting the Xiongnu and expanding their influence in the late 3rd to early 2nd century BCE. Throughout Han–Xiongnu relations, the shanyu exercised significant influence, negotiating peace through the heqin system at times and engaging in hostilities at others. Over time, internal divisions and external pressures led to fragmentation of the Xiongnu into northern and southern branches, with the title continuing in various forms into the early centuries CE.

In modern scholarship, shanyu is used to reference the Xiongnu’s supreme ruler and is a key term in studies of steppe imperial politics and Sino-nomadic relations.