hostilities

Hostilities refer to acts of armed aggression or conflict between parties, including states or organized armed groups. They may involve military operations such as combat, bombardment, blockades, and occupation. Hostilities may be declared or undeclared and can occur in interstate wars, civil conflicts, or insurgencies. In some contexts, cyber operations and other non-kinetic actions are discussed as part of ongoing hostilities.

International law distinguishes jus ad bellum, governing the justification for opening hostilities, from jus in bello, governing conduct during hostilities. A lawful initiation may require self-defence or collective security authorization, while aggression otherwise remains prohibited. Once hostilities commence, parties are bound by the laws of armed conflict, including principles of distinction, proportionality, and precautions to protect civilians.

The effects of hostilities extend beyond battlefield deaths to humanitarian crises, displacement, infrastructure destruction, and economic disruption. Civilian harm is a central concern, prompting humanitarian access and protection measures. Contemporary conflicts may feature hybrid tactics, external interventions, or cyber elements that complicate applications of traditional legal regimes.

Ending hostilities typically requires ceasefires, peace negotiations, or military capitulations. Even after active fighting ceases, post-conflict reconstruction and transitional justice may be needed to address grievances and prevent resumption of hostilities. The term remains broad and its legal status depends on the relevant treaties, customary law, and specific engagements. See also: armed conflict, war, ceasefire, international humanitarian law.