Xiongnu

Xiongnu (also rendered Hsiung-nu) were a major nomadic confederation on the eastern Eurasian steppe, emerging in the late 3rd century BCE and persisting in various forms into the 1st century CE. They occupied the region north of the Han Chinese heartland, from the Mongolian plateau to the Hexi Corridor. The Xiongnu were not a single ethnic group but a political alliance of tribes ruled by a supreme leader known as the chanyu.

Maodun, a central figure in the early 2nd century BCE, unified many tribes and expanded Xiongnu power, creating a centralized hierarchy and a system of tribute and client relationships with neighboring polities. The confederation was characterized by a mobile, horse-based economy and a social order organized around aristocratic lineages, with a core ruling house and subordinate clans.

Relations with Han China defined much of the Xiongnu period. From the 2nd century BCE, repeated warfare and diplomacy alternated with periods of tribute and treaty. The Han built the early Great Wall as defense, and pursued diplomacy, marriage alliances, and exchange with the Xiongnu. At times the confederation divided into eastern and western branches; the eastern Xiongnu were more closely aligned with Han, while the western branch faced pressure from other steppe powers.

Decline and legacy: By the 1st century CE the Xiongnu fragment dissolved under internal rivalries and pressure from successor groups, including the Xianbei. In later historiography they are often linked to the Huns of later centuries, though direct continuity is debated. Archaeology and linguistic evidence provide only limited understanding of their origins and language.