separatism

Separatism is a political movement or ideology that seeks to separate a geographic region from a larger sovereign state in order to establish an independent state or to gain greater autonomy within a federal or devolved framework. It is distinct from secession as a general term and from irredentism; some movements pursue full independence, while others seek constitutional arrangements that grant cultural, linguistic, or political autonomy within the state.

Causes of separatism commonly include collective identity—ethnic, linguistic, or religious—combined with perceived economic disparities, political marginalization, or control over local resources. Movements employ a range of methods, from electoral campaigns and referendums to peaceful advocacy, civil disobedience, and, in some cases, violence or insurgency. National governments often respond with negotiation, reform, or suppression, with outcomes depending on political context and international considerations.

Notable contemporary cases include the Catalan independence movement in Spain, the Scottish national question in the United Kingdom, and Quebec’s historical referendums in Canada. Historical and ongoing movements include Basque separatism in Spain and France, Kurdish movements across Turkey, Iraq, Syria, and Iran, and movements in several African and Asian states. These cases illustrate a spectrum of aims, strategies, and state responses.

International law recognizes the principle of self-determination, but it generally requires a consent-based, negotiated process for changing borders, and unilateral secession is not readily recognized. Outcomes vary widely and can lead to new states, enhanced autonomy, or renewed integration, with potential impacts on security, economies, and minority rights.