selfconstruals

Self-construals are the cognitive representations by which individuals define themselves relative to others and to the broader social world. They shape what aspects of the self are salient in perception, motivation, emotion, and behavior. The field often distinguishes two primary orientations: independent self-construals and interdependent self-construals. Independent self-construals emphasize personal autonomy, unique attributes, and internal goals, while interdependent self-construals stress connectedness, social roles, relationships, and conformity to group expectations. The distinction was popularized by Markus and Kitayama in the 1990s and has been used to explain cross-cultural variation in cognition and behavior.

Measurement commonly relies on self-report scales such as the Singelis Self-Construal Scale, which asks respondents to rate items tapping independence and interdependence. Research shows that self-construals relate to attention and information processing, self-esteem, emotion regulation, and moral or social judgments, with independent individuals more likely to focus on focal objects and dispositional attributes, and interdependent individuals more attentive to contextual cues and relational norms. Self-construals also moderate cultural effects on behavior, including communication, negotiation, and achievement motivation.

Cultural variation is often observed: Western societies tend toward independence, whereas many East Asian and some collectivist contexts lean toward interdependence. However, there is considerable within-culture variation and situational flexibility; individuals may hold both orientations across domains. Critics caution against treating self-construals as fixed, universal traits and note measurement and conceptual challenges. Contemporary approaches emphasize multidimensional, domain-specific, and context-dependent construals of the self.