selfcomparisons

Self-comparisons are cognitive processes in which individuals evaluate their own attributes, abilities, or status by comparing themselves with others or with their past selves. They are central to social cognition and influence self-esteem and motivation. Two broad forms are social comparisons (with other people) and temporal or self-referential comparisons (with one’s own prior states). Within social comparisons, upward comparisons involve someone perceived as superior, while downward comparisons involve someone perceived as inferior. Temporal comparisons can be upward (current self judged against a better past self) or downward (against a worse past self).

Cognitive and motivational mechanisms: People rely on reference groups and perceived closeness to determine relevance and direction of the comparison. Self-evaluation maintenance theory and social comparison theory describe how comparisons can motivate improvement or protect self-esteem, depending on factors such as closeness to the comparison target, relevance of the attribute, and perceived controllability.

Effects: Self-comparisons can enhance motivation and learning when they are informative and modifiable, but they can harm well-being and self-esteem when they are frequent, unfavorable, or driven by envy. The rise of social media has amplified appearance- and success-related comparisons for many individuals.

Context and variation: The prevalence and impact of self-comparisons vary across cultures, personality traits, and situational cues. Research uses experimental and longitudinal designs to examine direction, distance, and emotional consequences, and often integrates with Festinger’s social comparison theory and related models.