qaghan

Qaghan, also spelled khagan, is a title used in Turkic and Mongolic polities for the supreme ruler or emperor, typically the ruler of a khaganate or a confederation of tribes. It denotes a status higher than that of a regular khan and is often rendered in English as “Great Khan.” The term appears in historical inscriptions and chronicles of steppe civilizations and is closely associated with rulership over multi-tribal realms rather than a single clan.

Linguistically, qaghan derives from the word for khan with an intensifying prefix, commonly interpreted as meaning “great” or “supreme.” The form and transliteration vary across languages and sources, yielding qaghan, khagan, kaghan, and related spellings. In Old Turkic and later medieval Turkic and Mongolic texts, the title signifies both personal sovereignty and a hierarchical position above other rulers.

Historically, the title was used by several significant powers. The Göktürk Khaganate (6th–8th centuries) employed the title for its rulers, such as Bumin Qaghan and Istemi Qaghan. The Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th centuries) also used qaghan as the sovereign title. In the Mongol Empire and its successor states, the ruler held the title of Khagan (Great Khan), denoting the supreme leader of the Mongol realms and, in various periods, the overlord of subordinate khans within the empire and its successor khanates, including the Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde. The term remains a common scholarly designation for these roles in historical discussions.

Today, qaghan is used primarily in academic and historical contexts to discuss these ancient rulers and the political structures of their empires.