positivism

Positivism is a philosophical approach that holds that valid knowledge derives from empirical observation and verifiable facts. It seeks to describe the world through observable data, measurable relations, and the methods of the natural sciences, while rejecting metaphysical or theological explanations as meaningless or non-cognitive.

Classical positivism is associated with Auguste Comte (1798–1857), who argued that human thought passes through theological, metaphysical, and positive (scientific) stages. He proposed that society should be studied with the same empirical methods used in the natural sciences, yielding general laws about social order and progress.

Logical positivism emerged in the early 20th century, principally within the Vienna Circle, with figures such as Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, and A. J. Ayer. It stressed the verification principle: a statement is meaningful only if it is empirically verifiable or tautological. This movement focused on formal language, logical analysis, and the reduction of scientific theories to observational and logical components.

Positivist methods influenced the social sciences, especially through "sociological positivism" that emphasized statistical description and law-like generalizations. The approach faced substantial criticisms: the verification principle was challenged as self-defeating; many scientific terms cannot be directly observed; the demarcation between science and non-science was questioned; and the role of theory and values in inquiry was argued to be unavoidable (leading to post-positivist or critical realist perspectives).

Today, positivism's legacy remains in the emphasis on empirical evidence and careful methodology, but most philosophers of science describe themselves as post-positivist or advocate alternatives that allow theoretical terms, inference, and values. The term is still used descriptively for certain research programs that prioritize observable data and testable hypotheses.