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Polarization is a property of waves that describes the orientation of their oscillations perpendicular to the direction of travel. For light, this means the direction of the electric field vector as the wave propagates. Light can be unpolarized, randomly oriented, or polarized in specific ways such as linear, circular, or elliptical. Polarization is also a feature of other transverse waves, such as mechanical waves in materials and radio waves.

In optics, polarization is produced and analyzed with devices like polarizers, wave plates, and analyzers. Polarization can arise from reflection, refraction, or propagation through anisotropic (birefringent) media. Detection and characterization commonly use Stokes parameters and Mueller calculus, or geometric representations such as the Poincaré sphere. Applications include liquid crystal displays, photographic filters, microscopy, and fiber-optic communications, where matching the transmit and receive polarization improves signal quality and reduces losses.

In materials science and chemistry, polarization often refers to dielectric polarization, the alignment of molecular dipoles or electronic charges in response to an external electric field. This leads to a material’s dielectric constant and influences capacitor behavior, refractive properties, and electro-optic effects. Different polarization mechanisms—electronic, ionic, orientation, and induction—operate over varying timescales.

In telecommunications and antennas, polarization describes the orientation of the radiated electric field. Matching the transmitter and receiver polarizations (linear, circular, or elliptical) is crucial for maximizing signal strength and minimizing interference.

In social science, polarization describes the division of attitudes or opinions into distinct groups, often increasing over time and affecting discourse, policy, and social cohesion.