polarizations

Polarization is a property describing the orientation of oscillations or alignments in a physical system. In waves, particularly electromagnetic waves such as light, polarization specifies the orientation of the electric field vector as the wave propagates. In other contexts, polarization can refer to the alignment of microscopic dipoles in a material or to the spin alignment of particles in quantum systems.

Optical polarization encompasses several canonical states. Linear polarization has the electric field oscillating in a single plane. Circular polarization features the electric field rotating with constant magnitude, while elliptic polarization is the general case where the tip of the electric field traces an ellipse. Polarization can be altered or analyzed with devices such as polarizers, wave plates, and retarders. Malus’s law relates the transmitted intensity through an ideal polarizer to the angle between the incident polarization and the polarizer axis. Unpolarized light comprises many randomly oriented components, yielding diminished or averaged polarization effects.

Polarization is measured and described with mathematical formalisms such as the Stokes parameters and the Poincaré sphere, which capture intensity and the degree and type of polarization. These tools underpin practical applications in imaging, communication, and sensing.

Applications span telecommunications and optics through polarization multiplexing and polarization-maintaining fibers, as well as antenna design where match and cross-polarization discrimination matter. In materials science, polarization denotes spontaneous dipole alignment in ferroelectric materials and its control for sensors and actuators. In quantum physics, polarization concepts extend to spin polarization of particles and polarized beams, with implications for experiments and quantum information.