polarizer

A polarizer is an optical filter that transmits light with a preferred polarization state while attenuating light with other polarizations. By aligning its transmission axis, a linear polarizer selects a single polarization component from an initially unpolarized or mixed beam. Circular polarizers consist of a linear polarizer followed by a quarter-wave plate, converting linearly polarized light into circular polarization so the device remains compatible with imaging systems.

Mechanism and theory: Unpolarized light contains waves vibrating in all directions perpendicular to the propagation axis. A polarizer reduces this to a single orientation. The transmitted intensity I_out depends on the angle between the incoming polarization and the polarizer’s transmission axis, described classically by Malus’s law: I_out = I_in cos^2(theta). Real polarizers achieve extinction ratios that quantify their ability to block unwanted polarization components. Wavelength dependence and material properties influence performance, causing color shifts or reduced transmission at certain wavelengths.

Types and construction: Linear polarizers are commonly made from dichroic materials (such as polyvinyl alcohol with iodine) or thin metal films, sometimes in a laminated film. Circular polarizers pair a linear polarizer with a quarter-wave plate. Other devices include polarization beam splitters and wire-grid polarizers used in infrared and microwave regions.

Applications: Polarizers are widely used in photography and cinematography to reduce glare and enhance contrast, in sunglasses, and in liquid crystal displays to control light transmission. They also play a critical role in scientific instrumentation, microscopy, spectroscopy, and optical communications.

Limitations: Polarizers introduce some light loss and are wavelength-dependent. They can affect color balance, require careful orientation, and may be more expensive at higher performance.