piperine

Piperine is an alkaloid present in the fruits of the pepper plant, particularly black pepper (Piper nigrum) and long pepper (Piper longum). It is the principal pungent constituent of pepper and is an amide formed from piperic acid and piperidine.

Chemically, piperine is relatively lipophilic with limited water solubility, and its stability is influenced by heat and light.

It occurs mainly in the outer fruit and can be extracted with organic solvents.

Piperine is notable for its biological activity as a bioavailability enhancer.

It can increase the oral absorption of various nutrients and drugs by inhibiting hepatic and intestinal metabolizing enzymes and transporters, including cytochrome P450 enzymes (notably CYP3A4), UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and P-glycoprotein, thereby reducing first-pass metabolism and efflux.

In addition to its culinary use as the pungent component of pepper, piperine is marketed in dietary supplements, often in combination with curcumin, to improve absorption.

It is also studied for potential effects on metabolism, inflammation, and neuroprotection, though evidence varies.

In typical culinary amounts, piperine is considered safe for most people.

High doses or concentrated extracts can cause gastrointestinal irritation and may interact with medications by altering drug metabolism or transport, leading to enhanced effects or adverse events.

Regulatory status varies by jurisdiction, with piperine used as a flavoring agent and as a supplement ingredient in many countries.