ottoman

The Ottoman Empire, commonly referred to as the Ottoman State or the Ottoman polity, was a Turko-Islamic multinational empire that lasted from around 1299 to 1922. It originated in northwestern Anatolia under Osman I, after whom the dynasty and the empire were named.

The empire expanded steadily over several centuries, at its height spanning large parts of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. Its capital shifted from Bursa to Edirne and finally to Constantinople (Istanbul) after the capture of the city in 1453, a turning point that established Ottoman dominance in the region. The 16th century, under Suleiman the Magnificent, marked the zenith of political power and cultural influence, with a sophisticated administrative system and extensive territorial holdings.

Government and society were organized around a hierarchical sultanate. The sultan wielded supreme authority, supported by a central bureaucracy, provincial governors, and military elites such as the janissaries. The devshirme system recruited Christian youths for state service, many rising to prominent positions. The millet system allowed religious communities limited autonomy in personal and civil matters. Land and fiscal administration evolved from the timar system to more centralized tax structures. Law blended Sharia with secular Kanun, creating a unique legal framework for the empire’s diverse subjects.

From the 17th century onward, the empire faced military challenges, economic pressures, and administrative strains. The 19th-century Tanzimat reforms sought modernization and centralization in response to internal and external pressures. After World War I, the empire collapsed and was partitioned, with the sultanate abolished in 1922 and the modern Republic of Turkey founded in 1923 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

The Ottoman legacy persists in architectural, cultural, legal, and demographic influences across regions once under its rule.