osteoporosisrelated

Osteoporosis-related refers to the health issues associated with osteoporosis, a chronic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue that increases fracture risk. The most common fracture sites are the hip, spine, and wrist, collectively known as fragility fractures. Osteoporosis is typically diagnosed by measuring bone mineral density using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). A T-score of -2.5 or lower at the hip or spine confirms osteoporosis; a T-score between -1.0 and -2.5 indicates osteopenia. FRAX, a fracture risk assessment tool, estimates 10-year probability of a major osteoporotic fracture or hip fracture and helps guide treatment.

Risk factors include age, female sex, menopause, family history, low body weight, smoking, excessive alcohol, and secondary causes such as glucocorticoid use, malnutrition, endocrine disorders, and certain medications. Adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, regular weight-bearing and resistance exercise, smoking cessation, and limiting alcohol can reduce risk.

Management aims to prevent fractures and maintain quality of life. Nonpharmacologic strategies include nutrition, fall prevention, and physical activity. Pharmacologic treatments reduce fracture risk by inhibiting bone resorption or stimulating bone formation. Antiresorptives such as bisphosphonates (e.g., alendronate, risedronate) and denosumab are commonly used. Anabolics such as teriparatide and romosozumab are options for high-risk patients. Choice of therapy depends on fracture risk, tolerability, and comorbidities. Calcium and vitamin D supplementation is recommended when dietary intake is insufficient.

Prognosis varies with fracture risk and fracture occurrence; vertebral and hip fractures significantly increase morbidity and mortality. Ongoing research seeks to improve risk prediction and develop new treatments and imaging techniques.