orthographies

Orthography is the conventional spelling system of a language, encompassing the set of characters used to represent sounds, as well as rules for capitalization, punctuation, hyphenation, and word breaks. It provides a stable written medium for spoken language and is typically codified in dictionaries, grammars, and style guides. Orthographic norms can reflect a language’s history, pronunciation, and social or political decisions, and may diverge from everyday speech.

Scripts and symbols: While many languages use alphabetic orthographies with letters representing sounds, others employ syllabaries or logographic systems. Most modern orthographies include diacritics or digraphs to indicate variations in pronunciation, tone, stress, or historical forms. An orthography may or may not align closely with current pronunciation; irregularities often persist due to etymology, borrowings, or conservation of older forms.

Phonemic and morphophonemic correspondences: Some orthographies aim for a phonemic correspondence (one grapheme per sound), while others preserve morphological or historical relationships, leading to irregular spellings. The result can be a balance between readability, learnability, and the transmission of linguistic information such as etymology or grammar.

Standardization and reform: A language community may establish official spellings through academies, ministries, or educational authorities. Reforms seek consistency or modernization, sometimes provoking debates about identity and heritage. Notable reforms include the German spelling reform of 1996, Turkish language reforms in the 20th century, and periodic updates to French or Portuguese spelling.

Impact and modern use: Orthography supports literacy, education, and media access. In computing and digital communication, standardized orthography relies on consistent encoding and input systems; diacritics and non-Latin scripts pose technical challenges but are essential for accuracy and meaning.