borrowings

Borrowings, in linguistics, are words adopted from one language into another. They are commonly called loanwords. Borrowings arise through contact between cultures and can enter a language by trade, migration, colonization, or media exchange. They may be used with little adjustment or undergo phonological, orthographic, and semantic adaptation. Some borrowings are fully assimilated over time; others remain distinctly foreign in form or usage.

Types and processes include direct loans, which are borrowed with some phonological adjustment to the recipient language; calques or loan translations, where a word or phrase is translated element by element; and semantic loans, where a word takes on a new meaning in the recipient language. Partial borrowings and hybrid formations also occur as words acquire new morphemes or combine with native elements.

Phonology and orthography frequently shape how a borrowing fits the recipient language. Borrowed forms may be adapted to fit native sound systems and spelling conventions, or they may retain their original pronunciation and spelling in restricted contexts. Over time, borrowed items often undergo further regularization and integration into the lexicon.

Examples illustrate the range of borrowings. English includes kindergarten (from German), robot (from Czech), sushi and tsunami (from Japanese), bungalow (from Hindi). Many languages borrow extensively in domains such as science, technology, cuisine, and culture, reflecting ongoing contact and exchange.

Sociolinguistic factors influence borrowing. Prestige, language policy, and social attitudes toward foreign terms affect whether a language adopts, replaces, or resists loanwords. Etymology and usage data guide the study of how borrowings spread and change.