lying

Lying is the act of presenting information as true when one believes it to be false, or deliberately withholding information to create a false impression. A lie can take the form of an explicit false statement, an omission, or a statement that is misleading through exaggeration or insinuation. Common varieties include direct falsehoods, lies of omission, white lies intended to avoid unnecessary harm, and deception by misdirection or bluffing.

Lying serves a range of personal and social functions. Motivations include self-protection, avoidance of blame, gain of material or social advantage, and manipulation of others. Some social contexts, such as diplomacy or competitive games, tolerate or even expect strategic deception; in others, lying erodes trust and is condemned.

Ethical and legal perspectives on lying differ. Many moral theories view lying as morally wrong because it violates the trust essential to social cooperation; deontological ethics emphasize the intrinsic wrongness of making false statements, while consequentialist approaches assess lies by their outcomes. Cultural norms and professional codes also shape what kinds of deception are considered acceptable.

Detecting lying is challenging. There is no universal indicator of deception, and even reliable cues can be unreliable. Tools like polygraphs have limited validity and are contentious in fact-finding contexts. The consequences of lying can include damaged credibility, damaged relationships, social sanction, and legal penalties in contexts such as fraud, perjury, or false statements.

Lying has been studied across psychology, philosophy, and linguistics, with research focusing on development, cognitive load, and the social functions of deception.