deception

Deception is the act of causing someone to hold a belief or take an action based on information that is false, misleading, or concealed. It typically involves intentionality; accidental mistakes do not constitute deception.

Forms of deception include lying (stating a falsehood as if it were true), misrepresentation (presenting selective or misleading information), concealment (omitting relevant facts), exaggeration, bluffing, and insinuation. Deception can also occur through nonverbal cues, deceptive signaling, or strategic concealment of intent.

Deception occurs in many domains, including personal relationships, business, politics, and warfare. Ethically, it is controversial: some forms (such as white lies or protective deception in certain contexts) are defended as harmless or necessary, while others are condemned as fraud or manipulation.

Legally, deception can give rise to criminal or civil liability in cases such as fraud, perjury, false advertising, or misrepresentation in contracts.

Detection and prevention rely on verification, corroboration, and transparency. While some detection methods exist (e.g., polygraphs), their reliability is debated; critical thinking, source checking, and institutional safeguards are more robust defenses against deception in information exchange.

Deception is also studied in biology and psychology, where some species use deceptive signals to gain advantage, and in literature and media as a narrative device. Overall, deception raises questions about trust, autonomy, and the limits of information.