imperialisms

Imperialisms refer to the policy and practice of extending a state's authority through territorial acquisition, political domination, or economic and cultural influence over other territories. The term covers direct colonial rule as well as more indirect forms of domination exercised through economic leverage, military presence, or political influence. Analysts distinguish classic imperialism from informal, economic, cultural, and neocolonial forms.

Historically, imperialism emerged with European powers creating overseas empires in the early modern period, reaching a peak in the 19th and early 20th centuries during the Scramble for Africa and similar campaigns in Asia and the Pacific. Other empires, including the Ottoman, Russian, Japanese, and later the United States, pursued imperial projects. Methods ranged from settler colonies and direct rule to protectorates and spheres of influence; economics often accompanied political control through loans, resource extraction, and investment.

Common motives include access to resources and markets, strategic security, national prestige, and civilizational justifications such as the so-called civilizing mission, though these narratives are widely criticized as coverings for domination.

Its impacts include political realignments, social disruption, demographic change, economic extraction, and lasting cultural and legal legacies. The rise of anti-imperialist movements and decolonization in the mid-20th century reshaped world politics and led to the formation of new states, institutions, and norms.

Scholars debate imperialism in theory and practice. Lenin argued that imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism; postcolonial theorists emphasize exploitation and cultural domination; others describe neocolonialism or economic imperialism through international institutions and multinational corporations. In contemporary usage, imperialisms can refer to ongoing influence rather than formal rule.