hofstede

Geert Hofstede (1928–2020) was a Dutch social psychologist whose research focused on how culture shapes values in organizations. While working for IBM in the 1960s and 1970s, he analyzed large-scale survey data from employees in many countries, which led to the development of Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory. The theory identifies key dimensions along which national cultures differ and can influence management, communication, and work practices. His early work culminated in Culture's Consequences (1980), a foundational text that popularized the idea that culture affects organizational life. Subsequent editions and related works expanded the framework and its applications in international business and cross-cultural understanding.

The model originally included four dimensions: Power Distance (the acceptance of unequal power distribution), Individualism versus Collectivism (the preference for independence versus group cohesion), Masculinity versus Femininity (the emphasis on achievement and competition versus care and quality of life), and Uncertainty Avoidance (the tolerance for ambiguity and rules). Later additions expanded the landscape with Long-Term Orientation (a future-oriented, pragmatic outlook) and Indulgence versus Restraint (the degree of allowed gratification of desires). These dimensions are often used to compare national cultures, design multinational teams, and guide negotiating and leadership approaches.

Hofstede’s work has had wide influence in business education, management training, and international policy. It has also faced criticism for relying on a single organization’s data, assuming cultural homogeneity within nations, and potential oversimplification of complex social systems. Nevertheless, Hofstede’s dimensions remain a frequently cited reference in cross-cultural studies, and ongoing updates and online tools—developed by Hofstede Insights and researchers—seek to address limitations and incorporate new data.