fortifikatsioon

Fortification is the design and construction of defensive works to protect places from attack. It covers structures such as city walls, ramparts, moats, bastions, forts, coastal batteries, and field works, as well as defensive lines and artillery placements. Fortifications aim to deter enemies, slow their advance, provide defenders with fire, and safeguard civilians and assets.

History: Fortifications date to antiquity, with walled cities and towers. In the Middle Ages, fortified towns and castles dominated defense. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, bastioned and star-shaped fortifications became standard in Europe, reflecting advances in artillery. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, reinforced concrete and underground magazines reshaped design. With air power in the late 20th century, fixed fortifications often transitioned to mobile or dispersed layouts, though many remain as heritage sites.

Elements and types: Common components include the defensive perimeter, ramparts, glacis, bastions, moats, and casemates. Types include city fortifications, border lines, coastal batteries, and field fortifications, as well as siege works and fortified complexes.

Current status: Many fortifications survive as cultural monuments, museums, or public parks. Others are preserved within military sites or integrated into cities. They are studied for history and archaeology and attract tourism, while some still retain limited defensive roles in certain regions.