forest

A forest is a large area dominated by trees and other woody vegetation, typically with a multilayered structure and a closed to partially closed canopy. Forests occur on all continents except Antarctica and vary widely with climate and geography. They are commonly classified into tropical, temperate, and boreal (taiga) forests, each with distinct species assemblages and disturbance regimes.

The vertical organization of forests includes emergent trees, the canopy, an understory, a shrub layer, and a forest floor covered with leaf litter and rooting zones. Nutrient cycling is driven by decomposers and fungi that form mycorrhizal associations with tree roots. Forests support complex food webs and many species adapted to specific microhabitats.

Ecosystem services include carbon storage, regulation of water cycles, soil stabilization, and erosion control. They supply wood and other products, medicinal resources, and recreational and cultural values. Biodiversity is often highest in tropical forests, but temperate and boreal forests sustain many specialized organisms as well.

Forests are shaped by natural disturbances such as fire, windthrow, disease, and insect outbreaks, as well as by human activities including logging, land conversion, and fragmentation. Regeneration after disturbance follows ecological succession, potentially restoring old-growth structure given time and suitable conditions. Sustainable forestry aims to balance resource use with biodiversity conservation and ecosystem health, sometimes through protected areas or certification schemes.

Threats include deforestation, habitat fragmentation, invasive species, and climate change. Conservation efforts focus on protecting large intact landscapes, restoring degraded forests, and promoting practices that maintain carbon storage, biodiversity, and resilience.