fallacies

Fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that renders an argument invalid or weak. Fallacies can be formal, arising from an error in the logical structure, or informal, stemming from the content, context, or rhetorical appeal of the argument. Formal fallacies occur when the form of the argument guarantees the conclusion is invalid, such as affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent. Informal fallacies involve deceptive or misleading content, including irrelevant reasons, assumptions, or emotional appeals.

Common informal fallacies include: ad hominem (attacking the person instead of the argument); straw man (misrepresenting an opponent’s position); appeal to authority (relying on authority rather than evidence); appeal to ignorance (claiming something is true because it has not been proven false); false cause (assuming a real link from sequential events); false dichotomy (presenting only two options); begging the question (assuming what one is trying to prove); circular reasoning (relying on the conclusion as a premise); hasty generalization (drawing a broad conclusion from insufficient evidence); red herring (diverting attention to an irrelevant issue).

Fallacies can be persuasive in everyday discourse but do not establish the truth of a claim. They are studied in logic, critical thinking, and rhetoric to improve argument quality. Evaluating arguments involves examining evidence, assumptions, and coherence, and recognizing that an argument may be fallacious even if it contains true information or a valid point.