estepes

Estepes, or steppes, are extensive grassland plains that span parts of Europe and Asia. They lie between forested zones to the north and deserts or semi-deserts to the south and east. The climate is typically continental, with hot summers and cold winters, and relatively low precipitation, often limiting tree growth. The landscape is usually rolling and largely treeless, dominated by grasses and herbaceous plants, with soils ranging from fertile Chernozem in some western regions to poorer soils in more arid areas.

Geographically, the major steppe regions include the Pontic-Caspian Steppe across Ukraine and southern Russia into western Kazakhstan; the Kazakh Steppe, a vast central belt of Kazakhstan; and the Mongolian and Transbaikal steppes that extend into parts of southern Siberia and northern China. These steppes form a broad Eurasian belt that has historically connected Europe and Asia. The North American prairies are a parallel biome but are not part of the Eurasian estepes.

Ecology and land use vary by region but share common features: grasses such as feather grasses (Stipa) and other perennial species dominate, with patches of shrubs in drier areas. The fauna includes species adapted to open grasslands, such as birds of prey like the steppe eagle, ground-nesting birds, and various herbivores and predators; in some regions, saiga antelopes and historic populations of wild horses have been noted. Human use has long centered on pastoralism and, in more recent times, cereal agriculture; the fertile soils in some steppes underpin large agricultural regions, while other parts remain more marginal.

Conservation concerns center on habitat loss from overgrazing, agricultural conversion, and desertification. Protected areas and reserves exist in several countries, aimed at preserving remnant steppe ecosystems and their biodiversity.