earlymodern

Early modern is a historiographical term describing a period that roughly spans from the late 15th century to the late 18th century, bridging the Middle Ages and the modern era. Exact dates vary by region and discipline; some scholars begin with the invention of the printing press or transoceanic exploration, while others place the end with the French Revolution or the onset of the Industrial Revolution. The label is most commonly applied to European history but is used in global contexts to indicate transitional developments that connect medieval and modern forms of governance, economy, religion, and culture.

The period is characterized by the consolidation of centralized monarchies and expanding bureaucracies, the rise of early modern states, and sustained momentum toward global interaction. Economic life saw growth in commerce, banking, and the beginnings of capitalism, alongside mercantilist ideas that linked state power to trade and accumulation of wealth. Religious transformation was central, notably the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation, accompanied by religious conflicts and renewed church authority in various regions. Scientific inquiry advanced through the Scientific Revolution, while the arts produced distinctive late Renaissance and Baroque outputs. The era also witnessed unprecedented global exchange, colonization efforts, and the Columbian Exchange, which interconnected continents and altered demographics, ecosystems, and economies.

Regional variation is substantial: Europe experienced intense political, religious, and intellectual upheaval, whereas other regions operated within different political orders and networks of exchange. The term is criticized for its Eurocentrism and its teleological portrayal of progress toward modernity. In scholarship, it is treated as a transitional phase rather than a fixed era, with debates over its endpoints ranging from political revolutions to industrialization.