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Anisotropy, sometimes rendered as anisotropa in certain languages, refers to the property of a system whose characteristics vary with direction. The opposite is isotropy, where properties are the same in all directions. Anisotropy arises when there is a preferred orientation or structure, such as aligned fibers, crystalline order, or layered textures.

Causes and focal points include intrinsic anisotropy, which comes from the symmetry of the material’s internal structure (for example, crystals with different lattice directions), and extrinsic or induced anisotropy, which results from processing, alignment, or external fields. Many directional properties are better described by tensors rather than simple scalars, reflecting their dependence on orientation and the interaction of multiple directions.

Common manifestations encompass mechanical, thermal, electrical, and optical properties. In mechanics, elastic moduli and strengths vary with direction; in thermal and electrical conduction, conductivities differ along different axes; in optics, refractive indices can be direction dependent, leading to phenomena such as birefringence. Examples include wood, which is stiffer along the grain; graphite, which conducts heat and electricity more readily along certain planes; and crystalline minerals that show strong optical anisotropy.

Measurement and modeling often use tensor mathematics. Principal directions and values identify the axes of maximum and minimum response. Techniques such as X-ray diffraction, polarized light microscopy, and ultrasonic testing help characterize texture and elastic constants. Computational methods and finite element analysis incorporate anisotropy to predict real-world behavior.

Applications span materials design, geophysics, optics, and electronics, where controlling or accounting for anisotropy enables tailored performance and accurate interpretation of material responses.