adverbformation

Adverbformation is the set of processes by which languages create adverbs and adverbial expressions, i.e., words or phrases that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire clauses. Adverbs typically convey manner, place, time, degree, or modality, and they can arise from several sources, including derivation, conversion, compounding, or lexical borrowing.

In English, the most productive method is derivation by suffixing adjectives with -ly: quick becomes quickly, slow becomes slowly, happy becomes happily. There are many irregular adverbs that do not follow this pattern, such as fast and hard, which have stable forms, and early or late, which address time rather than manner. Adverbs of degree or intensity—very, somewhat, rather, more, most—modify other adverbs, adjectives, or verbs (e.g., more quickly, very quickly). Adverbs can also be formed by conversion, using adjectives or nouns directly as adverbs (e.g., fast, here, there, indoors), and by compounds or phrases such as likewise, hence, in the morning, with care.

Other languages show different strategies. In many Romance languages, adverbs are commonly formed from adjectives with the suffix -mente in Spanish, -mente in Portuguese and French, or -mente in Italian (e.g., lentamente, lentement, lentamente). In German, many adverbs resemble adjectives in form and function, and some specialized adverbs are created with suffixes like -erweise (e.g., glücklicherweise “fortunately”). Adverbial function can also be expressed by prepositional phrases or adverbial phrases (in time, with great care, there, thereupon).

Across languages, adverbformation interacts with syntax, morphology, and historical change, yielding a wide variety of productive patterns and irregulars.