activations

Activation functions are mathematical functions applied to the output of a neuron in a neural network. They introduce nonlinearity, enabling networks to model complex, non-linear relationships. An activation is computed by applying a nonlinear function to the weighted sum of inputs plus a bias. The function’s properties influence training dynamics, gradient flow, and the ability to approximate functions.

Common activation functions include:

- Sigmoid: maps inputs to the range (0, 1); smooth but can suffer from vanishing gradients for extreme values.

- Tanh: maps to (-1, 1); zero-centered but also susceptible to gradient vanishing in some regimes.

- ReLU (Rectified Linear Unit): max(0, x); fast and simple but can produce dead neurons for negative inputs.

- Leaky ReLU and PReLU: allow a small, nonzero gradient for negative inputs to mitigate dead neurons.

- ELU and SELU: provide a smooth negative region, helping gradient flow and self-normalization in some networks.

- GELU and Swish: smooth, often providing improved performance on deep models.

Softmax is a special case used in the output layer for multi-class classification, converting a vector of scores into a probability distribution.

The choice of activation affects learning dynamics, including gradient propagation and convergence speed. Practical considerations include initialization, normalization, and architecture design (e.g., residual connections) to stabilize activations across layers. There is also interest in adaptive or learnable activation functions, where parameters are tuned during training for potentially better performance.

In summary, activation functions are a core component of neural networks, shaping how information flows and how well the model can learn complex mappings from data.