Surnames

Surnames, or family names, are hereditary identifiers shared by members of a family and used to distinguish individuals within a population. They are typically passed from generation to generation and can endure long after a person’s lifetime. Surnames arose independently in many cultures and are now a common element of personal identity.

Origins and spread vary by region. In Europe, hereditary surnames became widespread in the Middle Ages to improve record-keeping, while in East Asia family names have long been used and are often written before given names. In Iberia and many Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries, individuals frequently bear two surnames from paternal and maternal lines.

Types include patronymic or matronymic surnames (from an ancestor’s given name, such as Johnson or Ivanov), toponymic surnames (from a place, such as Hill or Rivers), and occupational surnames (from a trade, such as Smith or Baker). Descriptive or nickname-based surnames refer to a trait, and other surnames reflect geography or nature.

Spelling and form vary across languages and over time, influenced by dialects, migration, and transliteration. Immigration often led to changes in spelling or pronunciation. Naming practices at marriage or in civil registration can also alter surname transmission, resulting in hyphenated, combined, or double surnames in many societies.

Today, surnames aid in identity verification, legal records, and genealogical research. They provide clues about geographic origin, ancestry, and family history, while evolving with social changes such as gender equality and shifts in naming laws.