Pratyaksa

Pratyaksa (Sanskrit: प्रत्यक्ष) means direct perception and is a central concept in Indian epistemology. It is one of the pramanas recognized by various Indian schools as a valid means of knowledge. Pratyaksa denotes cognition that arises immediately from the contact between a sense organ and its object, without mediation by inference, testimony, or analogy. In ordinary sense perception, for example, seeing a flower or touching a stone.

Pratyaksa is usually subdivided into external perception (parapratyaksha) and internal perception (aparapratyaksha), with the former referring to perception of external objects through the senses and the latter to immediate cognitive awareness of mental states or internal objects, such as perceiving a thought or a sensation within.

Validity depends on certain conditions: the object must be present and accessible to the appropriate sense organ; the sense faculty must be functioning properly; the cognition must be non-defective and not disturbed by dream or delirium. Perception is considered reliable when these conditions are met, but there is also caution about perceptual error and illusion. In Nyaya discussions, factors such as the object being within the sense’s reach and the cognition being causally connected to the object are emphasized.

In classical Indian epistemology pratyaksa is contrasted with other pramanas such as anumana (inference), shabda (verbal testimony), upamana (comparison), arthapatti (presumption), and anupalabdhi (non-perception). It is generally accepted as the primary source of knowledge about the visible world, though many thinkers also stress its limitations and the need for corroboration by other pramanas in cases of ambiguity or when reasoning and testimony are required for reliable understanding.